The gender differential and the educational gradient of parental employment in Norway, France, Belgium, Austria, West-Germany, Estonia, Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary

Karel Neels, University of Antwerp
Zita Theunynck, University of Antwerp

Parental employment is the outcome of a cost-benefit calculation involving a variety of factors. In line with Coale’s preconditions for behavioural innovation, we group these factors under the headings ‘readiness’ (parental employment is economically advantageous), ‘willingness’ (parental employment is acceptable at both the societal and individual level) and ‘ability’ (welfare state provisions that support parental employment are available and accessible). Using data from the Generations and Gender Surveys, this paper documents the gender differential and the educational gradient of labour force participation before and after parenthood in Norway, France, Belgium, Austria, West-Germany, Estonia, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania. The results indicate that the level of maternal employment is elevated in Norway, with a limited educational gradient. In Belgium and France and even more so in Estonia, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, the educational gradient of labour force participation is very pronounced, particularly among mothers. Austria and West-Germany show low levels of maternal employment, regardless of education. The between-country differences in maternal employment are subsequently set off against differential attitudes concerning parental employment and differential uptake of family policies in the countries considered.